Additional Punctuations
Apostrophes
Contractions
Apostrophes are used to show missing letters in contractions, shortened words or numbers, or dialect.

EXAMPLE
Can + not = can't
Will + not = won't
I + have = I've
They + are = they're
It + is (or It + has) = it's
of the clock = o'clock
running = runnin'
1993 = '93

Possessive Nouns
Apostrophes help a noun or indefinite pronoun show ownership by making it possessive.

EXAMPLE
The bone of the dog = the dog's bone
The house of Jonas = Jonas's house
The cries of the children = the children's cries
The trails of the jets = the jets' trails
The papers of everyone = everyone's papers

Note:
Possessive pronouns are already possessive, so they don't need an apostrophe.

EXAMPLE
The backpack of the boy = his backpack

Plural Numbers, Letters, and Abbreviations
In the past, apostrophes were used to make letters, numbers, abbreviations, and "words used as words" plural. In modern style, apostrophes are used only for plural "words as words" and plural lowercase letters. It is also necessary to use italics in addition to the apostrophe in these two situations. It is not necessary to use either italics or an apostrophe to make capital letters or numbers plural.

Letters and Numbers
"Mind your p's and q's" is now "Mind your p's and q's." (Notice how the apostrophe and the s are not italicized.)
"Two A's" is now "two As."
1940's is now 1940s.

Words as Words
Older style:	Check the there's in your essay and make sure they shouldn't be their's
Modern style:	Check the there's in your essay and make sure they shouldn't be their's. (Notice how the apostrophe and the s are not italicized.)

Semicolons
Definition: The semicolon is a mark that looks like a period above a comma (;). It signals a more complete break than a comma, but not as complete as a period break. It's a "halfway-in-between" mark. It's used to show that two sentences are related in some way.

Joining Independent Clauses Without a Conjunction
When joining two independent clauses to make a compound sentence, a semicolon can be used instead of the comma and conjunction. This only works if the relationship between the sentences is close and clear.

EXAMPLE
I brought my umbrella, but I left it in the car.
I brought my umbrella; I left it in the car.

Remember: Connecting two independent clauses with a comma is always incorrect and creates what's called a comma splice.

One way to fix a comma splice is to replace the comma with a semicolon. However, it's best to use semicolons sparingly. Often it's better to use either a comma plus a conjunction or just a period.

Joining Independent Clauses that Contain Commas
If at least one of the independent clauses in a compound sentence contains commas of its own, it's usually better to use a semicolon instead of a comma between clauses.

Doing so helps avoid confusion. Just remember to remove the conjunction, unless it's a transitional conjunction (you'll learn about how to use those in the next section).

Comma + conjunction
My cousin just had a baby, and I hope to go visit her sometime this summer.

Semicolon with no conjunction
My cousin, who recently moved to London, England, just had a baby; I hope to go visit her sometime this summer.

Transitional Expressions
You've probably already learned how to use transitional expressions to connect two independent clauses.

Usually the first independent clause ends with a period, and the next clause starts with a transition plus a comma. Sometimes you can use a semicolon instead of a period if you want to show a closer link between the two clauses. If you choose to use a semicolon, the first letter of the transitional expression will be lowercase.

EXAMPLE
I have always liked bats. In fact, they are my favorite animals.
I have always liked bats; in fact, they are my favorite animals.

Hint:
There are other transitional expressions that can be used after a semicolon, such as however, moreover, and therefore, among others.

Series with Commas vs. Series with Semicolons
If the items in a series have their own commas, the series commas become semicolons to make the sentence easier to read.

Series with commas
I bought a scarf in Paris, cheese in Cheddar, a painting in Toledo, and a pair of earrings in Munich.

Series with semicolons
I bought a scarf in Paris, France; cheese in Cheddar, England; a painting in Toledo, Spain; and a pair of earrings in Munich, Germany.

Colons
Definition: A colon is a punctuation mark that looks like a period above a period (:). It generally introduces a list, a definition, a clarification, or additional details. It can also be used to emphasize, highlight, or draw attention to what follows it.

The statement that precedes a colon is always an independent clause, but what follows the colon can be either a dependent or independent clause. (This is in stark contrast to the semicolon, which always connects two independent clauses.)

Introducing a Series
Colons are used after an independent clause that introduces a list or series.

EXAMPLE
Please buy these items: a screwdriver, a hammer, a measuring tape, and some nails.
Please proofread for the following: periods, commas, and colons.

Hint:
Some people think that a colon must precede all lists, but this is not true: a colon can only be used after an independent clause. In the following sentences, you might be tempted to put a colon after your or got, but this isn't correct because the clause preceding the list is not an independent clause:

EXAMPLE
When you leave, don't forget to bring home your shoes, bathing suit, and towel.
These stickers are for those who got As, those who did extra credit, and those who turned their projects in early.

For dramatic effect, authors sometimes reverse the order of the sentence by placing the series before the colon and the independent clause after the colon.

EXAMPLE
Red, blue, and white: the decorations for the party were very patriotic.

Appositives After Independent Clauses
Colons are used before appositives that follow an independent clause. A comma could also be used, but a colon is stronger. Use a colon instead of a comma when you want to emphasize or call special attention to the appositive.

EXAMPLE
I only like two flavors of ice cream: chocolate and vanilla.
We visited a famous World Heritage Site: Stonehenge.

Introducing Quotations
Colons are used to formally introduce quotations. The formal introduction must be an independent clause. This is a great way to add dramatic effect to a quotation, but use it sparingly.

EXAMPLE
Whenever we helped my mother in the kitchen, she always quoted her grandmother's favorite aphorism: "Many hands make light work."
The coach's words stayed with his team: "I just want you to play your best."

Summaries or Explanations
A colon can be used to combine two independent clauses if the second clause summarizes or clarifies the first. The second sentence can begin with either a lowercase or capital letter.

EXAMPLE
I got rained on the entire walk: I am soaked.
This is what I wrote on the board: Homework due tomorrow!

Conventional Uses
After the greeting in a formal or business letter

EXAMPLE
Dear Sir or Madam: I would like to address a recent issue with your company …

In scripts to indicate dialogue
Sometimes you can express dialogue by using a name followed by a colon. Quotation marks are not necessary with this style, which is typically used in scripts. With this style, the characters' names appear in all capitals.

EXAMPLE
MACI: I missed the party because I was sick.
JACKIE: I'm sorry to hear that. You missed a great party!

Between hours and minutes in time
We will leave at 5:30 this evening.

Between numbers to show ratios or proportions
The best proportion of students to teachers is 20:1.

Between titles and subtitles of works
My favorite television show then was Star Trek: The Next Generation.

Between city and publisher in bibliographic entries
New York: Best Books, 2012

Between chapter and verse in biblical references
Grandma always quoted John 3:16.
Some style manuals recommend a period instead. Grandma always quoted John 3.16.

After warnings
Caution: Slippery when wet
Note: Use colons correctly
Warning: Poison

In memos
To: My Boss
From: Me